Tree of Science - Revision history

Ingmardb at 18:19, 10 October 2023

2023-10-10T18:19:55Z

Ingmardb at 18:18, 10 October 2023

2023-10-10T18:18:16Z

Ingmardb at 18:17, 10 October 2023

2023-10-10T18:17:58Z

Ingmardb at 18:05, 10 October 2023

2023-10-10T18:05:32Z

Ingmardb at 23:52, 30 September 2023

2023-09-30T23:52:53Z

Ingmardb at 23:51, 30 September 2023

2023-09-30T23:51:55Z

Ingmardb at 23:51, 30 September 2023

2023-09-30T23:51:04Z

Ingmardb at 23:50, 30 September 2023

2023-09-30T23:50:31Z

Ingmardb at 23:49, 30 September 2023

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Ingmardb at 23:48, 30 September 2023

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-Richard Feynman explains to his student audience how they should go about integrating their newly acquired knowledge on quantum mechanics in the sixth of the 1964 series of lectures called the Messenger Lectures [1]. When he was asked in an interview how magnets attract or repel each other, he answers "they just do". We could ask "why, why, why" ad infinitum without being satisfied, he says. On other occasions he defends the position that science is about knowledge, about being able to make accurate predictions, and not about understanding. I will argue here, that from a more general perspective, this idea about science is not in accordance with historical reality and will most likely not be in the future.
+Richard Feynman explains to his student audience how they should go about integrating their newly acquired knowledge on quantum mechanics in the sixth of the 1964 series of lectures called the <i>Messenger Lectures</i> [1]. When he was asked in an interview how magnets attract or repel each other, he answers "they just do". We could ask "why, why, why" ad infinitum without being satisfied, he says. On other occasions he defends the position that science is about knowledge, about being able to make accurate predictions, and not about understanding. I will argue here, that from a more general perspective, this idea about science is not in accordance with historical reality and will most likely not be in the future.
-If we take a look at the history of science, we can see that in essence the great advancements in science amounted to a better understanding of nature. Describing or modelling reality is only a part of the process of scientific discovery. Understanding may be seen as being able to describe phenomena in terms of a more general model, and that seems to (temporarily) satisfy our need for understanding the world around us. Explaining and understanding may be seen as two sides of the same coin. Science is almost never fully experimental, although some scientists procaim it to be so. Generally, hypotheses are formulated using our understanding of what could be a better explanation than the one we already know, otherwise we would be condemned to blind guesswork, which would result in a very ineffective process of scientific discovery.
+If we take a look at the history of science, we can see that in essence the great advancements in science amounted to a better understanding of nature. Describing or modelling reality is only a part of the process of scientific discovery. Understanding may be seen as being able to describe phenomena in terms of a more general model, and that seems to (temporarily) satisfy our need for understanding the world around us. Explaining and understanding may be seen as two sides of the same coin. Science is almost never fully experimental, although some scientists proclaim it to be so. Generally, hypotheses are formulated using our understanding of what could be a better explanation than the one we already know, otherwise we would be condemned to blind guesswork, which would result in a very ineffective process of scientific discovery.
-One of the most well-known statements by Isaac Newton on this subject is made in the last scholium of the Principia (in the third edition of 1726), where he says that he "does not think up hypotheses", "Hypotheses non fingo". Often it is thought that he meant by this, that hypotheses should be built upon observations, but, interestingly, that is in contrast to what Newton actually declares in the scholium. In the 1999 translation by Cohen and Whitman we find [2]
+One of the most well-known statements by Isaac Newton on this subject is made in the last scholium of the <i>Principia</i> (in the third edition of 1726), where he says that he "does not think up hypotheses", "Hypotheses non fingo". Often it is thought that he meant by this, that hypotheses should be built upon observations, but, interestingly, that is in contrast to what Newton actually declares in the scholium. In the 1999 translation by Cohen and Whitman we find [2]
 <ul><i>I have not as yet been able to discover the reason for these properties of gravity from phenomena, and I do not feign hypotheses. For whatever is not deduced from the phenomena must be called a hypothesis; and hypotheses, whether metaphysical or physical, or based on occult qualities, or mechanical, have no place in experimental philosophy. In this philosophy particular propositions are inferred from the phenomena, and afterwards rendered general by induction.</i></ul>

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 <H1 style="margin-top: 0px;">Asking "Why, why, why?" or The Tree of Science</H1>
-<small>Ingmar de Boer, v. 3</small><br>
+<small>Ingmar de Boer, v. 3.1</small><br>
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 If we take a look at the history of science, we can see that in essence the great advancements in science amounted to a better understanding of nature. Describing or modelling reality is only a part of the process of scientific discovery. Understanding may be seen as being able to describe phenomena in terms of a more general model, and that seems to (temporarily) satisfy our need for understanding the world around us. Explaining and understanding may be seen as two sides of the same coin. Science is almost never fully experimental, although some scientists procaim it to be so. Generally, hypotheses are formulated using our understanding of what could be a better explanation than the one we already know, otherwise we would be condemned to blind guesswork, which would result in a very ineffective process of scientific discovery.
-One of the most well-known statements by Isaac Newton on this subject is made in the last scholium of the Principia (in the third edition of 1726), where he says that he "does not think up hypotheses", "Hypotheses non fingo". Often it is thought that he meant by this, that hypotheses should be built upon observations, but, interestingly, that is in contrast to what Newton actually declares in the scholium. In the 1999 translation by Cohen and Whitman we find [2]:
+One of the most well-known statements by Isaac Newton on this subject is made in the last scholium of the Principia (in the third edition of 1726), where he says that he "does not think up hypotheses", "Hypotheses non fingo". Often it is thought that he meant by this, that hypotheses should be built upon observations, but, interestingly, that is in contrast to what Newton actually declares in the scholium. In the 1999 translation by Cohen and Whitman we find [2]
 <ul><i>I have not as yet been able to discover the reason for these properties of gravity from phenomena, and I do not feign hypotheses. For whatever is not deduced from the phenomena must be called a hypothesis; and hypotheses, whether metaphysical or physical, or based on occult qualities, or mechanical, have no place in experimental philosophy. In this philosophy particular propositions are inferred from the phenomena, and afterwards rendered general by induction.</i></ul>
-Apparently Newton is of the opinion that empirical research is done on the basis of deduction instead of guessing. What he calls hypothesis here, is indeed no more than a guess, as it is thought up without any logical connection to the phenomena at hand. Having criticism of the old is easy, while creating the new is difficult, Feynman also remarks, and of course at first glance it seems he is right, certainly from his perspective, where guessing is the only possible option left. On the other hand, Newton makes it look like it should be possible to directly deduce the new from the old.
+Apparently Newton is of the opinion that empirical research is done on the basis of deduction instead of guessing. What he calls hypothesis here, is indeed no more than a guess, as it is thought up without any logical connection to the phenomena involved. Feynman also remarks that having criticism of the old is easy, while creating the new is difficult. Of course at first glance it seems he is right, certainly from his perspective, where guessing is the only possible option left. On the other hand, Newton makes it look like it should be possible to directly deduce the new from the old.
-We could take a look here at an example from the history of science, perhaps even the most significant in the whole of its history, of the shift from the geocentric to the heliocentric worldview, as it was presented by Nicolaus Copernicus in his work De revolutionibus orbium caelestium. (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) How did he come up with his completely new view of the universe? First perhaps we should acknowledge that the heliocentric world view was not completely new at all. Apart from Claudius Ptolemy's Almagest, Copernicus studied ancient Greek texts speaking about the heliocentric worldview. In the days of Ptolemy however, heliocentrism was already controversial. Copernicus realised perfectly well how controversial his work would be in his day, but nevertheless he arranged the publication of the book, be it after his death. In his foreword he addressed Pope Paul III directly, explaining why he published it despite the controversy it would stir. In the foreword, his ideas are presented as a hypothesis, but in the chapters of the work itself, he shows that he is strongly convinced that the view he presents is the best explanation of the data which were at his disposal at the time.
+We could take a look here at an example from the history of science, perhaps even the most significant example in the whole of its history, of the shift from the geocentric to the heliocentric worldview, as it was presented by Nicolaus Copernicus in his work <i>De revolutionibus orbium caelestium</i>. (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) How did he come up with his completely new view of the universe? First, perhaps we should acknowledge that the heliocentric world view was not completely new at the time. Copernicus had already studied several ancient Greek texts mentioning the heliocentric worldview texts. One of these texts was Claudius Ptolemy's <i>Almagest</i>. In the days of Ptolemy however, heliocentrism was already a controversial point of view. Copernicus realised perfectly well how controversial his work would be in his day, and he chose wisely to arrange for the book to be published after his death. In his foreword he addressed Pope Paul III directly, explaining why he published it all the same, despite the controversy it would stir. In his foreword, his ideas are presented as a hypothesis, but in the chapters of the work itself, he shows that he is strongly convinced that the view he presents is the best explanation of the data which were at his disposal at the time.
-How could he be so sure that the earth was not at the centre of the universe if it was not on the basis of a proven hypothesis? In De revolutionibus he gives two "facts" which are "enough to show" that the centre of all known (then circular) planetary orbits is the sun, and not the earth. His first argument is the "apparent nonuniform motion of the planets" and the second is that their distance from the earth varies significantly. Both these observations are inconsistent with the sun and the planets moving in concentric circles around the earth. At that time there was no proper explanation for the retrograde movements of the planets, and it was unclear why the sun and moon did not show any retrograde movement. Also the differences between inner and outer planets were not properly understood. He writes (English translation by Charles Glen Wallis [3]):
+So how could Copernicus be so sure that the earth was not at the centre of the solar system, if it was not on the basis of a proven hypothesis? In <i>De revolutionibus</i> he gives two "facts" which are, as he formulates it, "enough to show" that the centre of all known (then circular) planetary orbits is the sun, and not the earth. His first argument is the "apparent nonuniform motion of the planets" while the second is that their distance from the earth varies significantly. Both these observations are inconsistent with the sun and the planets moving in concentric circles around the earth. At that time, there was no proper explanation for the retrograde movements of the planets, and it was unclear why the sun and moon did not show any retrograde movement. Also the differences between the movements of the inner and outer planets were not properly understood. He writes (English translation by Charles Glen Wallis [3]):
 <ul><i>For [these outer planets] are always closest to the earth, as is well known, about the time of their evening rising, that is, when they are in opposition to the sun, with the earth between them and the sun. On the other hand, they are at their farthest from the earth at the time of their evening setting, when they become invisible in the vincinity of the sun, namely when we have the sun between them and the earth.</i></ul>
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-[[File:Arbor_-_1.png|right|border|240px]] In the past, this idea has also been recognised by several early philosophers of science. For example, in 1297 the well-known Catalan philosopher and alchemist Ramon Llull, in his encyclopedic work l'Arbre de Ciència [4] already described the interconnections of different areas of knowledge as a tree structure. A few centuries later, Francis Bacon, in The Advancement of Learning [5] (1605), and the enlarged Latin version of the same work De augmentis scientiarum [5] (1623), also compared science to a tree. He calls the trunk, the unified theory, the philosophiae prima, the primary philosophy, or the summary of philosophy.
+[[File:Arbor_-_1.png|right|border|240px]] This idea has also been recognised by several of the earlier philosophers of science. For example, in 1297 the well-known Catalan philosopher and alchemist Ramon Llull, in his encyclopedic work <i>l'Arbre de Ciència</i> [4] already described the interconnections of different areas of knowledge as a tree structure. A few centuries later, Francis Bacon also compared the progression of science to a tree. In <i>The Advancement of Learning</i> [5] (1605), and the enlarged Latin version of the same work <i>De augmentis scientiarum</i> [5] (1623), the trunk representing the unified theory he calls the <i>philosophiae prima</i>, the primary philosophy, or the <i>summary</i> of philosophy.
-Particularly in natural science, development is driven by explaining effects in terms of their causes. Empirical research generally tries to produce effects by setting up presumed causes, and if in a certain number of a series of experiments the desired effect is produced, the principle of induction is called upon to declare that the presumed causes are indeed responsible for this effect. We may call this causal relation "proven", or we may say that the phenomenon is "explained". This basic process may also be characterised as answering a why-question. Why does the phenomenon take place, or what causes it? What we call natural science is essentially formed by asking why-questions, perhaps not ad infinitum as Feynman suggests, but repeatedly and systematically.
+Particularly in natural science, advancement is driven by explaining effects in terms of their causes. Empirical research generally tries to produce effects by setting up presumed causes, and if in a certain number of a series of experiments the desired effect is produced, the principle of induction is called upon, to declare that the presumed causes are indeed responsible for this effect. We may call this causal relation "proven", or we may say that the phenomenon is "explained". This basic process may also be characterised as "answering a why-question": why does the phenomenon take place, or what causes it? What we call natural science is essentially formed by asking why-questions, perhaps not ad infinitum as Feynman suggests, but repeatedly and systematically.
-Let us now return to Feynman's lecture. We have seen that some of the most important advances in science were decided by the criterium of having a better insight into the nature of things. They were primarily advancements in understanding. They were not so much based on guessing hypotheses, as they were on trying to correctly model the available data. Looking for explanations was the most important driving force, that is, asking the important why-questions. Now has this all changed with the advent of quantum mechanics in the twentieth century? What is going on in modern physics that our why-questions, our urge to understand things, is suddenly not good enough anymore? There is another quote from Feynman, perhaps his most well-known, from the same series of lectures [6], where he says "I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics". For him it is safe to say that, because as one of the greatest experts in the field he is well aware that quantum mechanics does not have a connection with a more abstract layer of knowledge, in terms of which it can be explained. It cannot be explained in terms of more familiar concepts, higher up in the tree of knowledge, but the trunk of physics, or a connection with any existing trunk, or "primary philosophy", is still to be found.
+Let us now return to Feynman's lecture. We have seen that at least one of the most important advances in science was decided by the criterium of having a better insight into the nature of things. Advancement is in this case primarily an advancement in understanding. They were not so much based on guessing hypotheses, as they were on trying to correctly model available data. Looking for explanations was the most important driving force, that is, asking the important why-questions. Now, has this all changed with the advent of quantum mechanics in the twentieth century? Is there something special going on in modern physics causing that our why-questions, our urge to understand things, are suddenly not good enough anymore? In the same series of lectures6, there is another well-known quote from Feynman, perhaps his most famous one, where he says "I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics". For him it is safe to say that, because as one of the greatest experts in the field he is well aware that quantum mechanics does not have a connection with a more abstract layer of knowledge, in terms of which it can be explained. It cannot be explained in terms of more familiar concepts, higher up in the tree of knowledge, but the "trunk" of physics, or a connection with any existing trunk, or "primary philosophy", is still to be found.
 Feynman, a Nobel-prize laureate, was indeed left with guessing hypotheses and was not able to deduce a new model from the available data or find a relevant bias to see through. His visible irritation with why-questions is a reflection of that, of his ambition, or his deep personal quest for the great answers.⏹

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-* Download: [[Media:Tree_of_Science_-_3.pdf | Asking "Why, why, why?" or The Tree of Science ]]  [[File:Pdf3.gif]]
+* Download: [[Media:Tree_of_Science_-_3_-_1.pdf | Asking "Why, why, why?" or The Tree of Science ]]  [[File:Pdf3.gif]]
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